Ottoman Empire

                     part 2

Decline and Innovation                                    (1828-1908)

Historians also call the decline of the Ottoman era as the modern era. During this period, the empire was defeated on every front and its borders continued to shrink. Despite the reforms, the failure of the central government led to administrative instability. During the 19th century, nationalism flourished in many countries, including the Ottoman Empire. Ascension was blessed. The scourge of ethnic nationalism was one of the most important of the Western ideologies that entered the Ottoman Empire during this period

During this time, many revolutionary political parties also came into being. While there were many other reasons for the growing deterioration in the kingdom, the spread of nationalism is one of the most important reasons for the decline. During this period, Greece gained independence in 1892 and the reforms could not stop the nationalism in the Danube principalities and the semi-autonomous regions of Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Wallachia and Moldova also gained independence from the empire in 1875. declared and after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro got formal independence.And Bulgaria was granted autonomy, but the rest of the Balkan states remained under Ottoman rule. During this period of decline, Yehuda Solman al-kalai, a Jew from Serbia, proposed the return to Zion and the liberation of Israel.

A series of constitutional reforms were introduced during the Regime period (1839-1876) which resulted in a relatively modern army, banking reforms and the establishment of modern factories. In 1856, through Humayun's letter, it was announced to give equal status to all Ottoman citizens, regardless of race and religion. The Christian minorities were also given special rights, such as the Armenian National Constitution approved under the 150-clause code of laws compiled by Armenian intellectuals in 1863. The most important thing in this period of reforms was the Constitution

What was called the Constitution, which was written by the youth Usman and was implemented on November 23, 1876. Through it, freedom of expression and equality under the law were granted to all citizens. The first constitutional period of the empire (Ottoman Turkish: Tight Because Beau) was short-lived, but the resulting ideology, according to a reformist group called the Young Ottomans educated in Western universities, was that a constitutional monarchy would grow as a state. Can solve problems Is. In 1876, Sultan Abdul Aziz (1861-1876) abdicated in favor of Murad V through the military throne. Murad V was mentally retarded and was removed from office within a few months. His potential successor Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) was invited to take over the kingdom on the condition that he would recognize the constitutional monarchy, which he did on November 23, 1876. But the parliament lasted only two years and was suspended by the sultan, who was later pressured to call the parliament. However, the impact of the constitution was reduced to a considerable extent. During this period, the empire was about to defend itself against external aggression and occupationFaced serious threats. In 1798 France occupied Egypt. After the defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, the state of Cyprus had to be handed over to Great Britain on a leash in 1878 as a reward for support at the Berlin Congress. The empire was unable to solve its problems by itself and had to solve its problems through the intervention and alliance of various European countries, for example the Crimean War in which the Ottomans allied with Britain and France against Russia. Although he was called the "sick man of Europe" during this period, the empire's economic woes were not due to its thriving economy, but to the cultural gap that separated it from the European powers. Economic problems were actually due to failure to deal with problems like external imperialism and emerging internal nationalism.

Dissolution (1908-1922)
The Second Constitutional Period (Ottoman Turkish: İkınçi Kondılıt Düri) culminated in the final dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. In this period, the politics of Unity and Development Jamaat and the movement that led to the Young Turks (Turkish: Jon Turkler) are the most prominent. The Young Turk Revolution began on July 3, 1908, and soon the movement spread across the Sultanate, and as a result, the Sultan had to proclaim the restoration of the 1876 Constitution and summon Parliament. During the constitutional period, the counter-throne of 1909 and the incident of March 31 counter-revolution came to a standstill, with which the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II was ended and he was exiled and replaced by his brother Muhammad V. was placed on the throne. Adolescent Turks of the RevolutionMeanwhile, taking advantage of the internal situation of the Ottoman Empire, in 1908, Austria-Hungary officially annexed occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria-Hungary occupied it after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and the Congress of Berlin (1878). During the Italo-Turkish Wars, the Balkan League, consisting of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece and Bulgaria, declared war against the Ottoman Empire, as a result of which the Ottoman Empire faced the Balkan War (1912-1913) and lost the Balkan Peninsula. Many areas had to be washed away. The wars in Libya and the Balkans were the first major test of unity and development. In the Italo-Turkish wars, the empire also had to lose Libya. It was the first war in the worldAirplanes were also used on the battlefield. The Balkan states established at the end of the 19th century were also eager to acquire additional territories from the Ottoman provinces of Albania, Macedonia and Thrace (Tarakia) on ethnic and national lines. Initially, agreements were reached between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912, in which Russia played the role of mediator. The Serb-Bulgarian Pact called for the partition of Macedonia, which was the main cause of the First Balkan War. The main cause of the outbreak of the Second Balkan War was the dispute between the former Balkan allies over the distribution of the newly acquired territories, which the Ottoman Empire took full advantage of and reconquered many territories in Thrace. Political consequences of the Balkan war of 1913 It led to the throne and the rule of three pashas.
        World War I
German control of the Baghdad Railway was a major issue of international tension in World War I. The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern arena of World War I due to the Turkish-German alliance. The Ottomans won two major victories in the early stages of the war, the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but also suffered a number of setbacks, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against Russia. The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans an opportunity to wash away the scars of defeat and regain lost territory, and Ottoman forces succeeded in capturing Azerbaijan in the final stages of the war, but lost these victories at the end of the Great War. A controversial and significant event in this conflict was the killing of millions of Armenians by Turkish authorities, Ottoman forces, and Kurdish fighters in Van province.
There were alleged massacres and deportations of the inhabitants and the resistance of the Armenians against it. A central Armenian resistance group declared the establishment of an independent Provisional Government in May 1915, and the Ottomans saw it as an attempt to support Russian forces invading eastern Anatolia. By the end of 1917, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation had established the Republic of Armenia, which was made up of survivors of the Armenian Genocide. It should be noted that the Turkish government does not believe in the massacre of Armenians.
The two main reasons for the defeat of the Ottomans in the First World War were the attacks on important targets by the British forces under the command of Edmund Allenby and the Arab revolt. These campaigns of Arab rebellion started with the Battle of Makkah in June 1916 by Sharif Makkah Hussain with the help of Britain and ended with the Ottomans throwing down their arms in Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the Ottoman commander of Medina, put up a strong resistance in the siege of Medina for more than two and a half years.
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          Distribution
As a result of the Great War, the process of partitioning the Ottoman Empire began on October 30, 1918, 13 days after the capture of Constantinople, through the Treaty of Madras. And later, the Treaty of Sèvres ceded Ottoman possessions in the Middle East to Britain and France, while the Mediterranean coast was ceded to Italy, the Turkish Aegean coast to Greece, and the Bosphorus Strait and Sea of ​​Marmara to the Allies as international territory. was handed over to the forces. At the same time, Wilsonian Armenia was formed by expanding the Republic of Armenia in eastern Anatolia
which was the ancient homeland of Armenians, but later Turks and Kurds also settled in these areas. Great Britain made a secret pact with France called Spectroscopic to divide the Middle East. The occupation of Istanbul and Izmir led to the establishment of the Turkish National Movement and the beginning of the War of Independence under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. On April 23, 1920, the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal announced the establishment of the "National Supreme Council" (Turkish: Buyuk Millat Majlisi) in Ankara, which refused to recognize the Ottoman rule in Istanbul and the foreign occupation of Turkey. done. The Turkish revolutionaries drove the Greek, Italian and French forces out of Anatolia through the People's Army.
The Republic of Armenia also regained territory that had been ceded to the Republic of Armenia as a result of the Treaty of Sevres and became a threat to British forces occupying the Straits. Finally, the Turkish revolutionaries captured the Straits and Istanbul and announced the end of the Ottoman Empire on November 1, 1922. The last Sultan Muhammad VI Vahid Puddin (1861-1926) left the country on November 17, 1922, and the Turkish Republic was officially recognized on July 24, 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne. A few months later, on March 3, 1924, 
The end of the caliphate was declared and the sultan and his family were exiled as undesirables. 50 years later, in 1974, the Turkish National Assembly granted Turkish citizenship to the former royal family and allowed them to return home. The number of new countries created as a result of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire (including the disputed Northern Turkish Republic of Cyprus) now stands at 40.